CHAPTER V

CONTENTS

SECTION I    - INTRODUCTION-HERALDRY
SECTION II.  - FEUDALISM
SECTION III. - THE TOURNAMENT AND ITS RELATION TO HERALDRY
SECTION IV.  - THE SHIELD
SECTION V.   - THE CREST
SECTION VI.  - SOME RULES OF HEREDITARY ARMORIAL BEARINGS
SECTION VII. - HERALDRY AS APPLIED TO COSTUME, FLAGS, HORSE FURNITURE AND WALL-HANGINGS

(Written in collaboration with G. Ambrose Lee, Esq., C.B., C.V.O., Clarenceux King-of-Arms)

SECTION I . - INTRODUCTION

HERALDRY may be defined as the science of recording genealogies, and interpreting charges and devices on shields, banners, etc. In days past it was chiefly used in connection with military equipment, and, from this circumstance, early heraldry has also been called Armory. Its most important function was that of distinction. It was a symbolic and pictorial language represented in figures, devices and colours. Every heraldic composition has its own definite and complete significance conveyed through its direct connection with some particular individual, family, dignity, or office.

Heraldry became hereditary, like other real property, in accordance with certain precedents and laws of inheritance. It admits of augmentation and expansion.

Origin and development. In all ages of the world, and amongst all races of men, some form of symbolic expression has been in use and favour. Warriors of distinction have adorned their shields with devices, sometimes significant of their own condition or exploits, country or family, and the use of these devices has been retained in many cases by their descendants. In like manner it has been a universal custom to display devices and figures on military standards. The systematised form evolved by the science of Heraldry about the middle of the twelfth century was a superstructure built up on these earlier forms of family insignia, which had acquired an hereditary quality.

The heraldry of Europe evidently derived its origin from the East, and was intimately associated with religion and superstition. The eagle belongs to the ensign of Vishnu, the bull to that of Siva, the falcon to that of Rama, the goose was an incarnation of Buddha, etc. Migrating tribes carried with them their respective emblems. In the same manner the Assyrians and Egyptians used various devices as decoration or cognisance. Greek warriors are shown on vase paintings carrying shields ornamented with various animals and objects, used as distinguishing emblems - a fact alluded to by Homer.

The Romans copied the Greeks and went still further, adopting the eagle as a national standard (see Vol. I., Fig. 35). Their military leaders sometimes wore distinguishing symbols on their armour or shields. Seals and signet-rings, engraved with a personal device, were also used by the Romans, and the emblems so employed have certain features in common with the system which developed much later into the definite science of heraldry.

The Israelites had certain devices, and even hereditary symbols, displayed on their standards.

"And the children of Israel shall pitch their tents, every man by his own camp, and every than by his own standard" (Num. i. 52). "Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his own standard, with the ensign of their father's house" (Num. ii. a).

It was the custom among Teutonic tribes, the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons, to bear standards, ensigns and shields, all decorated with a distinctive device, and this is true also of the Normans. [ "The two princes, William and Geoffrey, give a mutual challenge; each gives the other notice of the garb and shield that he will wear, that he may not be mistaken."]

Various countries in ancient times had their recognised standards, which were borne at the head of the army in battle, or flown as banners from the masts of the ships.

National emblems.

The Egyptians adopted the eagle and the vulture as a national standard.
The Greeks, the owl.
The Dacians, the dragon.
The tribe of Benjamin adopted the wolf, which is also the Norman standard.
The tribe of Dan, a serpent and an eagle.
The tribe of Ephraim adopted the unicorn.
The tribe of Judah, the lion, as if sleeping.
The Mexicans, the swan.
The Teutonic tribes adopted the horse, as borne by the House of Hanover.
The Scandinavians, the raven.

The history of modern heraldry begins about the middle of the twelfth century, with the use of hereditary devices for practical purposes of distinction. This was necessitated by three factors:

(a) The system of Feudal Overlordship (see Section II.).
(b) The growing popularity of the tournament (see Section III.).
(c) The first Crusades (see p. 318).

SECTION II. - FEUDALISM

Feudalism was the system by which a certain man, called a Vassal, held land from the owner, the king, or from an overlord, or Suzerain, on condition that the vassal rendered military service to his overlord when required.

The owner of some vast estate, himself a vassal to the king, found it to his advantage to parcel out land among vassals, who, in return, agreed to accompany him to war, attend his Court, and guard his castle, and, if necessary, assist him when he was put to any great expense. Land granted on these terms was said to be "infeudated;" and called a "Fief.

Originally the "fief" was granted for a certain number of years or for the life of the grantee, and reverted at his death to the owner. As early as the tenth century, there was a strong feeling that what the father enjoyed should pass to his children, and shortly afterwards the usual tenure was amended so that the possession of land became hereditary in the family of the vassal, and passed down to the eldest son from one generation to another. So long as the vassal remained faithful to his lord and performed the stipulated services, and his descendants did the same, neither the lord nor his heirs could rightfully regain possession of the land.

The holder of a fief might himself become an overlord by granting a portion of his fief to another upon the same terms as those on which he held from his lord. By these means the superior overlord drew around him a number of people of various grades, and this not only enhanced his prestige, but proved very useful in keeping up his estate in time of peace. In time of war, they formed a small standing army, and were essentially his men and not the king's. If the overlord warred against the king, his vassals could support him without being guilty of treason.

The vassal acknowledged his dependence on his feudal lord by the act of rendering "homage" (Latin, homo = man). He knelt before him, and, placing his hands between those of the lord, he swore to be his "man" (see Selous' Hereward the Wake, Pl. 19). Thereupon the lord gave his vassal the kiss of peace, and raised him. The vassal then took the oath of fidelity upon the Bible or some holy relic, solemnly binding himself to fulfil all his duties towards his lord. Refusal by a vassal to do homage for his fief (when it changed hands) was equivalent to a declaration of revolt or independence by the new heir. The overlord or suzerain was the immediate vassal of the Crown, since the king was recognised as the proprietor of the whole land.

When William I. conquered England, he claimed the whole country with himself as chief or superior landlord. The Anglo-Saxon nobles and gentry who supported him continued to hold their estates under him. The lands of the Saxon nobles and gentry who took arms against William were confiscated and given to the Norman nobles and military attendants who had helped him to conquer the country.

The overlord was of the class known as "Barons;" equivalent to the "Peers" of later times. The greater barons were the king's chief tenants, and in most cases enjoyed the offices of "Comes" and "Dux." The lesser barons held from the greater by tenure of military service.

The Origin of Early Titles

"Comes" or "Count" was a title instituted by Constantine the Great, and referred to a State official. An Imperial Roman officer was stationed in Britain during the fourth century A.D., and was styled "Comes Littoris Saxonici" - Warden or Guardian of the Saxon Coast, i.e. the east coast of Britain, which at that time was exposed to the ravages of Saxon pirates.

In Saxon times Comes was a title of honour and implied a "Companion of the King's Household." The Anglo-Saxon name was " Thegn," afterwards " Gezith," meaning "The King's Guard" (see Vol. I., p. 259). Eorl or AEthel (Yarl, Scandinavian), later Earl, was a Saxon title for the head man of the shire, and each shire had its Ealdorman (older or elder man, a civil magistrate, from which our word alderman is derived). Before the use of the title Earl, the older Saxon name of AEthel was general, and had an undermeaning equivalent to the Roman nobilis or primary class of noble blood, and from it the title "AEtheling," the king's kin, was derived. After the time of Canute (1014) the term Earl began to be used instead of Eorl or AEthel. The Norman successors to the deposed Anglo-Saxon earls were known for a time as "counts," since they preferred to follow the practice of the country whence they came. Until 1138 earls appear to have been officials, each in charge of a county, but those created by Stephen seem to have been often merely titulary. Up to the year 1337 the title of earl ranked as the highest after royalty, but it is now the third degree of rank and dignity in the British peerage. The title Count has now disappeared from the British peerage, or, more correctly speaking, it is merged in the title of earl. The wife of an earl, however, retains the title of Countess.

Viscount (Latin, Vice = instead of, and Comes) was originally the title of a sheriff of a county, or the Earl's Vice-agent. It was first bestowed upon John, Baron Beaumont, by Henry VI. in 1440 as an hereditary dignity. It now ranks fourth in the order of the peerage. Dux, later Duke, a military title of the Roman Empire, was created by Constantine the Great and used as the equivalent of the civil title of Comes on the separation of the military and civil command in A.D. 330. The general in command in Britain was styled Dux Britannium. The title of duke was not used in England until Edward III. created the Black Prince "Duke of Cornwall" in 1337. It was then merely a title of honour; in the British peerage it now ranks first after the Royal Family and the Archbishops of Canterbury and York.

Marken, Markisii, later Marquess, was a Teutonic word meaning the limit or border of a land or district, and afterwards the territory that adjoined that limit. The officers in charge of these districts (called Marken or Marquisates) were styled Markisii and in German Markgrafen. This office was assigned to the families of Percy and Douglas as Wardens of the English and Scottish Borders or Marches. As a title of honour it was first introduced by Richard II., who created his favourite Robert de Vere, Marquess of Dublin. It now ranks second in the order of the British peerage.

Baron. To-day the title of baron has declined from its original importance and is the fifth or lowest order in the peerage. All peers and peeresses other than dukes and their consorts are usually referred to as Lord and Lady So-and-so. The wife of a baronet or knight, properly called Dame, is also addressed by courtesy as Lady.

The sons of dukes and marquesses are called by their Christian names and their surnames, with the prefix of "Lord," and the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls in like manner, with the prefix of "Lady." But the eldest son of a peer holding more than one title is known by his father's secondary title. Younger sons of earls, and all the sons and daughters of viscounts and barons, are styled "The Honourable --."

It should be borne in mind carefully that in England there is no "nobility" except the actual holding of a peerage; all the sons of peers of every rank being, in the eyes of the law, nothing but commoners with no privileges whatsoever, except a barren title and a certain precedence.

Differencing

The overlords of the middle twelfth century, who had inherited these early titles, were the first to adopt Coats of Arms when heraldry originated. As time went on, it became necessary that the more important vassals living on an estate should be distinguished also by a device or badge. These vassals were men of every grade of gentle birth, and were the next to appropriate coats of arms for themselves.

At this juncture feudal dependence had a great effect upon heraldry and provided the means of meeting these increasing demands, introducing a treatment of armorial bearings based on and denoting:-

Feudal Alliance

The method generally adopted was for the vassals to take for their coats of arms some charge or detail from their overlord's shield of arms, and to arrange, concoct or develop armorial bearings at once different from and complementary to those of their overlords. This is called in heraldic language Differencing. As an example, it should be noted that Randolph, Earl of Chester (temp. Stephen and Henry II.), bore three golden garbs or wheat-sheaves upon a blue field (Fig. 424). The garb is still to be observed on the shields of a great number of the nobility and gentry of the County Palatine of Chester.

The Counties Palatine are those frontier counties where the count or earl exercised independent jurisdiction. This privilege was granted Hugh the Fat, Earl of Chester, by William the Conqueror. Durham and Lancaster were also Counties Palatine. The Palatine jurisdiction of Chester was abolished in 1830, and that of Durham in 1836. Lancaster alone (forfeited to the Crown in Edward IV.'s reign) still retains its Court. Palatinates of Pembroke and Hexham were dissolved in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth respectively.

SECTION III. - THE TOURNAMENT AND ITS RELATION TO HERALDRY

In the time of Charlemagne (800) it was the custom for nobles attached to his Court to amuse themselves with entertainments taking the form of combats at arms. Later on, Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Germany (917-936), adopted this pastime seriously. He inaugurated meetings of all his subjects whose estates qualified them for knighthood (see Chivalry), to practise military exercises in order to improve the efficiency of his cavalry; by this means he hoped to overcome the turbulent Hungarians who threatened invasion of his dominions. These gatherings proved very popular, and from them originated the Tournament, a conflict between many mounted knights divided into two parties. The name is derived from the French, tourner = to turn round. Great agility was necessary on the part of both horses and men in swerving round to ward off thrusts, as well as considerable military skill.

In the eleventh century, jousts were invented by a certain French knight, Geoffrey de Prenilly (died 1066). These were friendly trials of strength and skill between two mounted or unmounted knights, advancing on each other, lance in rest or sword in hand (see Plate XV.).

Tournaments or jousts do not appear to have been practised to any great extent in England until early in the twelfth century. William of Malmesbury, the historian, mentions one as having taken place in the year 1142 (Stephen), but such entertainments did not receive the royal authority until it was granted by Richard I. From this time onwards, both tournaments and jousts became more general, and many rules and regulations were introduced.

A Herald in mediaeval times was an officer who bore messages from one king or noble to another. He also laid out the Lists (the enclosed space reserved for the combat) in preparation for jousts or tournaments, and superintended matters relating to ceremonial and the bearing of coats of arms. A trumpet was blown and the herald announced a new knight when he appeared at a tournament. The German for "to blow a horn" is blasen, and the term "blazon" in heraldic language means to describe, interpret, or represent any armorial figure, charge, device or composition in an heraldic manner.

A charge is any heraldic device or figure.

An emblem is a concrete or pictorial expression of a symbolic idea.

If a new knight appearing at a tournament wished his identity to be kept secret, he kept the visor of his helmet closed. It was then the duty of the herald to interpret to the spectators the significance of the charges or devices upon the knight's shield, without divulging his name. This explanation, given in Norman French, came to be known as Heraldry, and its technical language is used to-day when describing coats of arms. While awaiting his turn a knight always hung up his helmet, with his shield below it, in the Lists, and the familiar decorative treatment of armorial bearings is copied from this custom (Fig. 425, also Figs. 439, 443 and Plate XVII.).

During the early Christian centuries, it was the habit among Teutonic warriors to mark their shields with a distinctive brilliant colour. Knights of the eleventh century also coloured their shields, often adopting for the early tournament the colours favoured by the lady of whom the bearer proclaimed himself the champion, and occasionally a portrait of the lady herself. These colours are known in heraldic language as Tinctures (see p.296).

A shield is blazoned or described in the following order. First, the shield or field, its character and tinctures, beginning, if divided, with the dexter side. Secondly, the charge, its position (sometimes), number, nature, and tincture (where necessary this is described quarter by quarter).

Plate XV. represents a friendly joust with swords. The combatant knights wear chain-mail hauberks, with attached hoods, of the twelfth century. The small diagram in the top left-hand corner of the illustration shows the method of stringing steel rings on strips of leather attached at intervals to the leather foundation, the rings on alternate strips being reversed in direction. The knight dated 1146 has been to the Crusade - see the cross on his helmet. Notice the construction of the shields, the grip on the inner side, 1190, and the metal bands in cross form and border, strengthening the face of the wooden shield, with primitive heraldic charges and tinctures: "azure a cross within a bordure argent."

PLATE XVII

This illustration is purposely wrong in two details. The knight should be facing the
other way, or,alternatively, be on the other side of the divisional barrier, since all
competitors at tournament or tilt met with their bridle-arms nearest to each other. To
show this correctly would have obscured the shield or the lower part of the knight's
armour and horse-trappings, and in this case, therefore, srict accuracy has been
sacrificed to effect. For the same reason the lance is shown passing behind the horse's
head, instead of in the front.

Plate XVI. shows a knight of the fifteenth century fully equipped for a tournament. His armorial bearings are "quarterly argent and gules, in the second and third quarter a frette or, over all a fesse azure." Crest, an eagle. This illustration shows the surcote, or jupon, housing of the period, and rein-guards, all charged with the knight's arms - the crest on the helmet, and on the horse's head, crest-wreath and mantling. The shield shows the "bouche" or aperture through which the lance passes. The vamplate or metal guard protects the handle of the lance. Notice the latest development of the chamfron (see plate XVIII).

SECTION IV. - THE SHIELD

The most important part of the whole paraphernalia of a knight or gentleman of the Middle Ages next to his sword was the shield. It was the first of all military accoutrements to bear family charges. Armorial bearings on the shield were common during the reign of Richard I. As Earl of Poitou he bore in his father's lifetime "or two lions combatant vert." In later times, when armour ceased to be worn, right up to the present day, the shield has continued to be regarded as the most appropriate vehicle for the same display.

The shield, with its armorial devices, constitutes a "Shield of Arms," and always displays its charges upon its face. It was held by the knight before his person, its face presented towards any who confronted him. The right and left sides of the knight were thus covered by the right and left sides of the shield, and consequently were severally opposite to the left and right hands of the observer. (In heraldic language the right side of the shield is known as the Dexter side, and the left as the Sinister.) For the most part these shields were made of wooden planks, linden or elm. framed to the required shape and strengthened by an extra piece, fixed perpendicularly or horizontally - sometimes both. They were often set in a frame or border. Shields used in warfare varied in shape at different periods.

Fig. 426, No. 1, shows the shape and construction of a characteristic shield of the thirteenth century. Describe an equilateral triangle, D C M, and with a centre, D, draw the segment of a circle, C M. Repeat with centre C, and draw segment D M. Divide the top, D C, into three equal parts. Raise the top of the shield one of these thirds.

The parts, or points, of the shield are distinguished thus:

E. The Dexter Chief, the most important position.
F. The Middle Chief.
G. The Sinister Chief.
H. The Centre or Fesse Point. Also important.
J. The Base.
K. The Dexter, or right side.
L. The Sinister, or left side.

Fig. 426, No. 2, gives the shape of a shield sometimes used in modern heraldry, being more convenient for displaying the numerous quarterings which have accumulated as time progressed. It is divided "per pale." The dexter side is quarterly of four, and the third quarter is again quarterly. The sinister side is quarterly of nine. This shape of shield is not considered to be in good heraldic style - and is referred to contemptuously as a "dog's - eared shield."

Returning to the construction of the shield, it is natural that the constructional lines were the first to be brought into use as an armorial charge. For example, by painting the surface one colour and the border or bar across it another, a conspicuous distinctive mark was obtained. This method created what is heraldically termed

The Ordinaries (Fig. 427.)

N.B. These drawings contain other details mentioned later.

1. The Chief, and three Pn,ss.
2. The Fesse.
3. The Bar or Bars.
4. The Pale.
5. The Cross.
6. The Bend.
7. The Saltire.
8. The Chevron.

As the number of knights and important people who adopted these charges increased, it became necessary to augment the ordinaries; consequently, there were introduced

The Subordinaries (Fig. 428)

1. The Canton: and three Besants.
2. The Quarter (Quarterly).
First and fourth, the Bordure.
Second, Flanges.
Third, the Tressure.
3. Rustre (with circular opening) and Mascles.
4. The Orle.
5. The Escutcheon.
6. Lozenges (three) and Billets (five).
7. Gyron.
8. The Frette.

These subordinaries proving insufficient,

Miscellaneous Charges

such as human figures, animals, birds, fish, natural objects and imaginary beings were added.

The term quartering means dividing the shield in the centre "per pale" or perpendicularly; dividing it again "per fesse" or horizontally, across the middle.

If one of the quarters is again quartered, it is termed quarterly quartering (see Fig. 426, No. 2, 3rd quarter, and centre shield, Plate XIX.).

If there are an uneven number of quarterings in a family coat of arms, the paternal coat or quarter - usually the dexter top one - is duplicated at the end to make up the even number.

Tinctures (Figs. 427 and 428). In English heraldry the tinctures comprise two metals, five colours, and seven furs. They are as follows:

Metals

                         Heraldic Term                                                Represented is black and white, Fig. 428, by

Gold                 Or                            No. 7                            Spots

Silver                Argent                      No. 8                            Plain

Colours

                           Heraldic Term                                                           Represented in black and white, Fig. 428, by

Blue                            Azure                            No. 1                           Horizontal lines

Red                            Gules                            No. 1                            Perpendicular lines

Black                          Sable                            No. 7                           Solid black or criss-crossed lines

Green                          Vert                            No. 5                            Lines bending to left, i.e. from dexter at top to sinister at bottom

Purple                          Purpure                      No. 5 but reversed. Lines bending to right

These metals and colours are represented in black-and-white drawings as shown in the shields in Fig. 428; but this convention was not in use during the Middle Ages, nor in Tudor times. It was introduced by an Italian heraldic artist about the year 1630. It is used, nevertheless, in some of the illustrations in this chapter, to enable the student to decipher the coats of arms.

It is the rule that a colour is superimposed on a metal and vice versa; never a colour upon a colour, nor a metal on a metal. This rule has its exceptions in the case of varied fields upon which may be charged a bearing of either metal or a colour. Also the armorial bearings of the Latin kings of Jerusalem bore "argent five crosses or" : the object of this exception was to provide a unique shield unlike that of any other sovereign.

The furs are shown in Fig. 427 and are as follows:

Ermine Black spots on white                                                 No. 1
Ermines White on black                                                        No. 2
Erminois Black (another form of "spot ") on gold                   No. 3

Vair                               }                                                 { No. 4
Countervair as shown in }                                                 { No. 6
Potent                            }                                                 { No. 8

"Counter" means reversed. "Counterchanging" is to divide the shield in such a manner that it is in part of a metal and in part of a colour, and then arranging the charges in such a manner that they shall be reciprocally of the same colour and metal. The armorial bearings of Geoffrey Chaucer, Fig. 429, give a simple example of counter-changing: "argent and gules a bend counter-changed." A more elaborate example is shown in Fig. 430: "per saltire a griffin coward, sable and argent, all counterchanged." Another shield showing counterchanging is that of Owain Glendower, Fig. 429. Chaucer Plate XIX.

Diaper is a term denoting a style of decorating the surface of the shield (see Chapter III.). It is merely a fancy treatment of plain surfaces, and does not alter the symbolism of the shield of arms, nor of the charges. It may be of a geometrical, floral or arabesque character.

Semee is a term applied to a small charge, strewn or scattered over a field (Fig. 436 - the ancient shield of France). The word powdered may also be used in the same sense.

Dividing and border lines. There were many different kinds of lines, apart from the straight and curved, used to divide the tinctures, etc., upon the face of the shield.

Fig. 431 gives eleven varieties with their heraldic names. Similar dividing or border lines were also used to decorate the edges of the cyclas or "quintise;" a fashion which started towards the end of Edward I.'s reign, and was afterwards carried to excess.

Charges. Space will permit only a few of the multitude of charges to be dealt with: the Cross, the Lion, and the Eagle.

The Cross

The simplest, and the one most frequently used, is that known as the Greek Cross, or Cross of Saint George (see Fig. 427, No. 5 ).

In the fifteenth century English soldiers wore a red Greek cross on a white ground, the French a white on red, over their armour.

Various crosses (see Fig. 432)

1. The Cross Fleurie.
2. The Cross Moline. Also stands for the eighth son in cadency. ("Azure a cross moline or," is borne by the family of the de Molines, or later the Molineux, who in 1771 were created Earls of Sefton.)
3. The Cross Pommee.
4. The Cross Botonee.
5. The Cross Crosslet.
6. The Cross Patee.
7. The Cross Portent.
8. The Cross Crosslet Fitchee. " Fitchee" applies to the pointed arm or end, and is frequently used with other crosses, e.g. Cross Botonee Fitchee. (See also Crosses, Chapter II.).

The Lion

The lion symbolises in heraldry courage and command. Ever since heraldry made its first pretensions to being a science, the lion has been held in the highest estimation, and was adopted as a charge on the shields of many of the European sovereigns, princes, nobles and men of gentle birth. The lion figures in the royal arms of England, Scotland, Wales, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, Hungary, Austria, Holland, Belgium, Bavaria, Bohemia, Luxemburg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, Schleswig, Venice, Swabia, Thuringia, Guelph of Saxony and Bavaria, etc. It is to be found also in the old English families of de Bohuns, Carew, Fitzalan, Howard, de Lacy, Percy, Mowbray, Segrave, le Strange, Talbot, Herbert, etc.

Being so much used, it was necessary to show it in different attitudes and in different tinctures:

Rampant. Erect, one paw on the ground, the other three elevated, its head in profile and its tail standing up. Originally the term "a lion" denoted a lion rampant, as this was its most characteristic attitude.
Rampant guardant. As above, but looking out from the shield.
Rampant reguardant. As above, but looking backward.
Passant. Walking. Right fore-paw elevated, looking forward, with tail displayed over the back.
Passant guardant. As the previous, but looking out from the shield, which attitude was originally termed "a leopard" ("gules three leopards or" : England).
Passant reguardant. As above, but looking backward.
Statant. Standing on all fore-paws, looking forward, and tail drooping behind.
Statant guardant and reguardant. Variations as before.
Sejant. Sitting; i.e. with the hind-quarters only on the ground.
Couchant. At rest; stretched on the ground.
Dormant. As couchant, but with the head laid between the fore-paws.

When several lions appear on a charge and are therefore drawn on a smaller scale, they are called lioncels (Fig. 33).

A lion's head is a frequent charge, either erased (cut or jagged) or couped (cut off straight). Such heads may be in profile or full-face.
The paw or jamb is often used, and may be also erased or couped.
A demi-lion is the upper part of the body cut off at the ribs, showing the tuft of the tail only at its back.
Lions are termed armed when the claws and teeth are of a different tincture. The term langued is applied to the tongue in like manner.
The term proper means in its natural form and colour.

These descriptions of different attitudes, etc., are applicable also to most other animals. The lions of England. "Gules three lions" (or leopards), passant guardant, "in pale or" (Fig. 433). The lions of England authentically date from the middle of the twelfth century and were first borne by King Henry II. The kings of England before this date are said to have borne lions as armorial bearings, but it is possibly mere legend, as they were invented for them by the heralds of the thirteenth century at a time when heraldry was so generally popular. All sorts of heroes of the Past, including Saxon kings, saints, biblical personages, and even Adam and Eve, had coats of arms assigned to them.

Whether it be legend or fact that William I. bore the two lions of the Norman duchy is uncertain, but the question arises, had the Normans of the eleventh century a conviction that they were descended from part of the lost tribes of Israel, and with this idea in mind did they adopt the lion of Judah as their standard? Be that as it may, when Henry II. ascended the throne of England, he is supposed to have added a third lion, the lion of Aquitaine, in right of his wife Eleanor.

The royal arms, "gules three leopards or," were first blazoned upon the shield of Richard I.

The Royal Arms of England, 1154-1485

Henry II., Richard I., John, Henry III., Edward I., Edward II, and Edward III. (until the thirteenth year of his reign) bore "gules three lions passant guardant, in pale or" (Fig. 433). In 1340 Edward III. made claim to the crown of France (through his mother, on the death of all her brothers) in opposition to Philippe VI. de Valois, and in consequence he quartered France Ancient (Fig. 436) with the three lions of England, giving precedence to the arms of France by placing them in the first and fourth quarters. The three fleurs-de-lys of France (Fig. 437) superseded France Ancient in or about 1405 (see Fig. 436 and 437) and remained in the first and fourth quarters of the royal arms of England until 1801.

Richard II. retained the arms of his grandfather and sometimes impaled, at other times quartered, the arms attributed to Eadward the Confessor, "azure a cross fleurie, between five martlets or," with those of France and England. Henry IV., Henry V., Henry VI., Edward IV., Edward V., and Richard III. all used France Modern (Fig. 437), quartered with England (Fig. 433).

In the course of the several centuries during which heraldry was universal, the heraldic lion and eagle went through a series of changes as regards their shape and decorative treatment. Each century had more or less its own style in lions and eagles (see Figs. 434 and 435). In its earliest form in heraldry (middle twelfth and early thirteenth centuries) the lion was much more like a leopard. Later, the lion achieved a more decorative and decided mane, and its legs began to acquire hair on the back part. The eagle also grew a more generous supply of feathers on its wings and tail. This development was more pronounced during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, when both became very much more ornate.

It was during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that the work of heraldic artists reached its highest standard. The most important point to be borne in mind by an heraldic designer or artist is that the style of the heraldry introduced should harmonise with the period of the incident represented. Until the Gothic revival in the Victorian era, it was possible to recognise the date of any heraldic achievement by the style in which it was represented, each preceding period having had a distinctive style of its own. It also should be remembered that a different style also characterised the heraldic draughtsmanship of the various countries of Europe, which in like manner can be recognised by connoisseurs.

A competent heraldic artist designs his lions, eagles, or in fact any charge, to fit the space or area of that part of the shield which it is to occupy. If that space be square, then his lion or eagle must be square

    cent.

1. 12th. Enamelled slab to Geoffrey of Anjou, Le Mans Cathedral. Rampant.
2. 13th. Tomb of William Longespee Salisbury Cathedral. 1226. Rampant.
3. 13th. Tile in Chapter House, Westminster. Passant.
4. 13th. From MS., National Library, Paris. 1300. Rampant.
5. 13th. From MS. by Matthew Paris. 1250. Passant.
6. 13th. Banner from the Chroniques de Saint Denys. 1250. Rampant.
7. 14th. From the seal of Thomas of Lancaster. 1322. Passant.
8. 15th. From a French MS. dated 1400-1420. Rampant.
9. 16th. From a roll of arms dated 1542. Rampant.

(see Fig. 434, No. 9, and Fig. 435, No. 1); if banner or shield shape, the charge must be adapted accordingly (see Fig. 434, Nos. 6 and 8, and Fig. 435, No. 4).

Nothing detracts so seriously from the value of heraldic detail introduced into pictorial works or stage productions as the slipshod and ill-informed treatment so often seen. Indifferent drawing, total neglect of the necessity to adapt the shape and size of the charge to that of the "field", inaccurate detail, and painfully inartistic treatment are the chief faults only too frequently found. A floreated sixteenth-century lion in a thirteenth-century setting is no more inappropriate than a "portrait" of Charles I. painted by a cubist. Perfect examples of ideal treatment are to be seen for the trouble of visiting Westminster Abbey; Edward III.'s tomb, for instance, the tiles in the Chapter House, and innumerable other specimens well repay study. Armorial bearings of various periods in Flanders and Germany, and even modern reproductions - the arms of the Counts of Flanders in the Hotel de Ville, Ghent (modern work), for instance - are excellent models to follow.

The Eagle

The eagle, although one of the earliest heraldic charges, does not appear in English heraldry as frequently as the lion. It symbolises royal power, courage and magnanimity. It is associated almost entirely with the Holy Roman Empire, and is thus borne by many ruling houses and princes in Germany, and figures in the royal arms of Germany, Russia, Austria, Prussia, Saxony, Lorraine, Leiningen, etc. It also figures in the arms of old English families such as the Monthermers, Montgomeries, d'Ernfords, De la Meres, Grandisons, Gavestons, etc.

The form is almost always "displayed," that is with its wings expanded, legs apart, and tail between the legs (with the head erect and in profile it is called the royal eagle). The double-headed or imperial eagle has two heads, arranged symmetrically in profile, looking outwards, and later examples are sometimes crowned or encircled by a nimbus.

Legs or jambs were used as charges and treated either erased or couped.
Wings, either double or single, called a vol, frequently occur.
Heads, erased or couped, were also used.

These descriptions of attitudes, etc., apply to all birds.

Persian. The eagle appeared in Persia in the fifth century B.C., when it was used as a military standard. Xenophon (443-357 B.C.) mentions that they carried on a spear in front of their army when on the march, a golden eagle with outspread wings.

Egyptian. The eagle was adopted by the Egyptians at a very early date, and was in use later under their Macedonian king, Ptolemy Soter, early in the third century B.C.

Roman Republic. It became the emblem of the Roman Republic about the second century B.C., and was permanently adopted as the Roman military standard during the second consulship of Marius, 104 B.C. The eagle with outspread wings, grasping the lightnings of Jupiter, was fixed to a long staff and carried in the van of the cohorts when on the march. In camp, the standard stood in the pratorium, fixed in the earth.

Imperial Rome. Under the Empire it was the insignia of Imperial Rome.

Byzantium. When the seat of empire was removed from Rome to Byzantium, or Constantinople, in 328, the imperial eagle went with it, and became the standard of the Byzantine Empire. To exemplify the

1. 13th. From Chroniques de Saint Denys. 1250.
2. 13th. The Emperor Otho IV., from Matthew Paris MS.
3. 14th. From the MS. of Baldwin of Luxemburg.
4. 14th. The Emperor Henry VI., from Minnesinger MS.
5. 16th. The Emperor Maximilian, 1521, after Albert Durer.

FLEUR-DE-LYS

6. 13th. Tomb of Fulk de Cantelupe, Abergavenny Church.
7. 13th. Tomb of Eva de Cantelupe, Baroness Bergavenny, Abergavenny Church. 1257.
8. 15th. Brass in Bray Church, Berks.
9. 25th. From Beaufort tomb, Southwark Cathedral.

MAUNCH

l0. 14th. Brass to Sir Hugh Hastings Elsing, Norfolk. 1347.
11. 16th. Tomb of Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, Sheffield Cathedral. 1528.

Eastern and Western Empires, the double-headed eagle looking to the left and right came into use at this time.

Russia. The Russian imperial eagle did not make its appearance until the fifteenth century A.D. The Czar of Muscovy, Ivan III. (1462 - 1505), had married the niece of the last emperor of Byzantium, who was butchered by the Turks. After the fall and sack of Constantinople in 1453, Ivan considered himself heir to the Byzantine, or Greek, Empire, in right of his wife, and took the imperial Byzantine eagle as his royal arms.

Holy Roman Empire. After Charlemagne had been crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope Leo III. at Rome on Christmas Day, 800, he adopted the eagle (single-headed) in support of his claim as successor to the Roman Caesars. Having seen the double-headed eagle on the imperial standard when on a visit to Constantinople in 1147, Conrad II, adopted it as the arms of his empire. The earliest representation still extant appears in a drawing made by Matthew Paris of the arms of the Emperor Otho IV., some time before 1259 (see Fig. 435, No. 2). It next appears on an imperial coin struck in 1325 by the Emperor Louis the Bavarian.

Germany and Austria. The emperors of Germany and Austria inherited their imperial double-headed eagle from the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire.

France. The Emperor Napoleon revived its use for his army in 1804 as a fitting symbol of Imperial France. It retired under the rule of the Bourbons, but was revived once more by Napoleon III. in 1852.

America. Its use by the United States of America was intended to express the ideas of freedom and courage.

Some other Charges

The fleur-de-lys. A lily or iris, taken by Louis VII. of France (1137-1180) as his royal ensign. In 1190 Philippe Auguste adopted "azure semee of fleurs-de-lys or" (see Fig. 436), which remained the royal coat of arms of France until Charles V. reduced their number to three, in 1365 (Fig. 437).

The dolphin (see Fig. 438, No. 13). First borne by Charles de Valois, grandson of Philippe VI. of France, in 1349. From then the eldest son of the King of France bore the title of "Dauphin." It originated in a misfortune which befell the last Count of Vienne in Dauphine, who accidentally caused the death of his only son by letting him fall out of a window. In his inconsolable grief, he sold his estates to the King of France on condition that the eldest son of the king should always bear the title of Dauphin; and then retired from the world into a monastery.

The covered cup (Fig. 438, No. 9). Borne by the family of Butler, hereditary cupbearers to the kings of England.

The water bouget (Fig. 438, No. 10). A charge representing the vessels used in the East at the time of the Crusades for carrying water. Borne by the family of Bourchier.

A chess-rook (Fig. 438, No. 11). Borne by the family of Rokewood and others.

The fer-de-moline or mill-rind (Fig. 438, No. 12). The iron affixed to the centre of a millstone, a modification of the "cross molines."

Manche or maunche (Fig. 435, 10). A sleeve from a lady's gown, fashionable in the reign of Henry I. (See also Fig. 59).

V. - THE CREST

The crest (Latin, crista = a tuft) was an ornament placed on the highest point of the helmet, and was a sign of distinction and exalted Position. The use of the crest was restricted in early days to a few persons of eminence. In later heraldry it is represented above a shield of arms.

In very early times the crest consisted chiefly of feathers. The Ionians are said to have been the first to wear tufts and feathers in their helmets, but the Greeks or Achaeans of a previous age, the Homeric period, wore crests of coarse hair dyed scarlet. Homer relates that Agamemnon wore a "studded helm with a fourfold crest and plume of horsehair . . . with its new scarlet dye . . . and terribly the crest nodded from above" (Iliad, ix. 15).

Alexander the Great wore on his helmet a ram's head, the emblem of Jupiter Ammon, in support of his claim to descent from that deity. Julius Caesar wore a star to indicate his relationship to Venus. In the Roman army a plume or crest was the distinguishing mark of a centurion.

The heads of wolves, bears, oxen with huge horns, and the spread wings of eagles were used by the chieftains of the Teutonic tribes, and later the Anglo-Saxons decorated their helmets of leather with combs of metal and the horns of various animals (see Vol. I., Figs. 86, 109, and 110,). The custom of wearing ornaments of distinction and honour on the helmet was discontinued during the Norman period, but revived in the middle of the thirteenth century, some hundred years after heraldry had first come into use, at a time when it had become thoroughly established and the right to armorial bearings recognised as hereditary.

An ornament in the nature of a crest was added to the helmet by the Earl of Boulogne at the Battle of Bovines in 1214. It consisted of two curved upstanding horns, made of stiffened parchment stuffed with wool. [ Crests were generally made of this material during the Middle Ages. A useful modern substitute is papier-mache. ] This was regarded as a ludicrous innovation; but later on, particularly in the reign of Edward I., such artificial horns became very fashionable.

Horns or trumpets standing up from the helmet were frequently used in foreign heraldry (especially German) with a crest, or alone (Plate XVI.B, "per fesse sable and or. Crest, two buffaloes' horns conjoined to combs, the whole also per fesse as in the arms," for Tannhauser).

Dating from the middle of the thirteenth century, crests were almost without exception in the shape of a fan or quadrangle fitted into the apex of the helmet. On this fan-shaped or quadrangular crest was a repetition of the armorial bearings of the shield (Plate XVIII.). By the middle of the fourteenth century figures and devices used as adjuncts to the shield of arms were employed in place of the fan.

These later crests were sometimes identical or modified forms of some detail of the shield, but occasionally quite distinct features. The significance of the charge on the shield (the family cognisance) was considered complete without addition of the crest, which was associated exclusively with the person who bore it. It was not until the end of the fourteenth century that the right to bear a crest was identified with the right to bear arms; and even then, although crests were recognised as hereditary, it was quite usual for any member of an armorial family to adopt one of his own if he thought it a more distinctive mark of his individuality. This was often the case in a family of several sons.

Women, except sovereign princesses, were, and are, not entitled to crests.

One, two, or three long waving ostrich feathers, rising from the apex of the helmet, came into use only at the end of the fifteenth century. During the sixteenth century they were very fashionable.

The crest wreath came into use about the third quarter of the fourteenth century, and consisted of a roll formed of two pieces of material of the principal colour and metal of the arms twisted together, worn round the top of the helmet level with the base of the crest (Plate XVI.). When a crest is represented without any other detail of armorial insignia, the wreath represented as a twisted bar is usually placed horizontally below it. This alternative shape came into use at the end of the fifteenth century.

Mantling or lambrequin. This was a pennon-shaped scarf of material, usually silk, lined with another colour, and placed on the helmet underneath the crest and crest wreath. It dates from the early fourteenth century. It hung in two long ends terminating in tassels. It was usually represented with jagged edges, a fashion which originated from the scarf being cut and jagged by the sword or lance in battle or tournament. In conventionalised form, it was used also in armorial achievements as a design round the shield. In colour it was of the principal tincture and metal of the shield (Plates XVI. and XVII.).

The helmet. During the course of the Middle Ages the helmet underwent many changes in shape, a fact which must be borne in mind in designing an armorial achievement, as the helmet should be of the same period. It is placed as an accessory above the shield of arms, and bears the crest, crest wreath and mantling. Before 1600, helmets were generally set in profile facing towards the spectator's left, but in more modern heraldry the practice is as follows:

The sovereign. Helmet of gold, with six bars in the visor, set full-face.

Princes and nobles. Helmet of silver, garnished with gold, five bars, set in profile.

Baronets and knights. Helmet of steel, garnished with gold, visor raised, no bar, set full-face.

Esquires and gentlemen. Helmet of steel, visor closed, set profile.

The badge. A single charge with a decided heraldic significance, in use long before the establishment of any definite usage in heraldic matters. When the code of heraldry, had come into being, the badge took the form of a figure or device, distinct from the crest. It often consisted, though not necessarily, of some detail adopted from the family shield, and was borne without any shield or other accessory, except perhaps a motto (Figs. 462, 463 and 471). Badges were of two kinds; the one, personal, peculiarly significant of the owner; the other, borne by all persons connected with the owner or dependent upon him. [ Early in the thirteenth century badges were worn upon the garments of the military and domestic retainers of great lords. ] The first category was often applied, during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, to the decorations of costume (see Fig. 348), household furniture and plate, horse equipment and military gear, banners, etc.

The badge can be used by the women as well as the men of the family to which it appertains. It has been, from this circumstance, called "The Woman's Crest."

Some Badges

Arundel: An acorn.
Beauchamp: Bear and ragged staff.
Beauforts: A portcullis.
de Bohun: White swan.
de Clare: Black bull. Clarion.
Clinton: Gold mullet.
Courtney: A bell.
Dacre: Silver escollop attached by cord to ragged staff.
Douglas: A red heart.
Edward II.: Castle.
Edward III.: A fleur-de-lys.
Edward IV.: A white rose en soleil. White lion.
Edward the Black Prince: An ostrich feather.
Henry IV.: White swan crowned.
Henry V.: A chained antelope.
Henry VI.: A panther.
Holland: A fetlock.
Howard: Silver lion.
Hungerford: A sickle.
John of Gaunt: Two falcons holding fetterlocks in their beaks.
Lancaster: Red rose.
Neville: A dun cow.
Pelham: A buckle.
Percy: Silver crescent. A double manacle.
Peverel: A golden garb.
Plantagenet: Broom plant (Fig. 345).
Richard III.: A white boar.
Stanley: Griffin's leg erased gold.
Tudor: White and red rose.
York: White rose. Shackle and padlock.

Supporters. Figures of various kinds, so placed in connection with the shield of arms as to appear to be protecting or supporting it.

In the early days of heraldry (thirteenth century) angelic figures were sometimes introduced, apparently as "guardian angels" to shields of arms, and these typified the great respect with which the family coat of arms was regarded. During the reign of Edward III., figures of men, beasts, birds, fishes, or imaginary animals were introduced on seals only, but these did not become general in the armorial insignia of persons of very high rank until the middle of the fifteenth century. They were only granted by express command of the sovereign.

Fig. 439 is a reconstruction from the seal of Earl Edmund de Mortimer (1400) showing the shield: "barry of six or and azure, an inescutcheon argent; on a chief or, gyroned of the second, two pallets of the same"; quartering: "or a cross gules" for de Burgh of Ulster. The crest: "a panache of many feathers rising from a coronet all proper." The helmet is mantled, and the whole supported by "two lions or."

Commoners are allowed the privilege of using supporters only if they are Knights Grand Cross of one of the great orders of knighthood, or otherwise by special permission and licence of the sovereign.

Armorial banners were often placed in the hands or paws of supporters.

Supporters, of course, had some reference to the bearer of the coat of arms, as, for example, in the case of the House of Tudor the earlier royal arms of England were supported by two lions. On the accession of Henry VII. the sinister lion was replaced by the Welsh dragon; and, in like manner, on the accession of James I., the dragon was superseded by one supporter of the Scottish royal arms, the unicorn.

Mottoes (Italian, motto = a word). In an heraldic sense, a motto a word or phrase accompanying a badge or coat of arms, and usuall inserted on a scroll. Derived from the "war-cries" of early times, motto may be emblematical, or it may have some allusion to the character of the person bearing it, or to his name or armorial insignia.

Richard I. was the first monarch to adopt the hereditary motto of our kings: "Dies et mon Droit," the field-word or war-cry used by him at the siege of Gisors, 1198.

Fare, fac. "Speak, act." Fairfax.
Cave. "Beware." Cave.
Set on. Seton.
Festina Lente. "On slow-push forward." Onslow.
Perse Valens. "Strong in himself." Percival.
Do no yll. Doyle.

Ich Dien. " I serve." [ A more probable interpretation of the meaning of "Ich Dien" is that it resembles in pronunciation the Welsh "eich dyn" meaning "your man;" part of the phrase "Here's your man," used by Edward I. in presenting his infant son, the first English Prince of Wales to the Welsh. It was first adopted as his motto, so far as we know, by Edward the Black Prince, and retained by all subsequent Princes of Wales. This is a more likely meaning than that commonly accepted, which offers a doubtful translation from the old German, "I serve." ]

Mottoes may express a moral or religious sentiment, or they may record some historic fact, as " Grip Fast," borne by the Earl of Rothes which alludes to the rescue from drowning of Queen Margaret by Bartholomew Leslie.

A motto need not be hereditary, and thus a different one may be assumed by each member of an armigerous family without any formality.

SECTION VI. - SOME RULES OF HEREDITARY ARMORIAL BEARINGS

Heritage

Heraldry recognised as a science, circa 1210. At the beginning of the thirteenth century the development of systematic charges led to the recognition of heraldry as a social necessity. The great number of armorial bearings that had been invented and assigned to various people during the latter part of the preceding century made it essential that a record of the names and bearings should be made, and this was prepared on long rolls of parchment. These were called Rolls of Arms, and to-day they give us most valuable information on this subject. The oldest roll extant dates about 1250, and is now kept at the College of Arms.

Popularity of armorial bearings. Each heraldic charge upon a shield had (in the beginning) its own definite significance with reference to the bearer. By it he was known, and his feats of daring upon the battlefield, or distinction in tournament and joust, were associated with his coat of arms, of which, therefore, he was justly proud. He displayed the armorial bearings in a decorative sense during periods of peace and in old age. The son and heir was proud of his father's Achievernents; in right of birth he took the paternal shield and strove to prove himself worthy of it, emulating his father's knightly deeds, possibly adding to the family fame, and so acquiring an Augmentation to his paternal coat. Thus the hereditary nature of armorial bearings was soon established.

The field. It should be noted here that the groundwork, or entire surface of the shield, is spoken of in heraldic language as The Field, because upon it were placed the honourable emblems won on the field of battle.

Marshalling

Armorial bearings having become hereditary, the eldest son bore the family shield of his father. To distinguish the shield of the son from that of the father, a Difference was placed upon it in the form of a Label (see Fig. 440, No. 1). [ If the label has more than the usual three points, the number should be specified in the blazon. The Dovetail label is of later date, and was not much used.] This was borne by the eldest son until the death of the father; the shield of arms then reverted to its original design, that is, the label was removed.

This process continued from father to eldest son during the course of generations.

The younger sons also placed various definite charges upon the family shield for "difference," a process referred to as Marking Cadency.

The "differences" illustrated in Fig. 440 are as follows:

2nd son . Crescent
3rd son . Mullet
4th son . Martlet
5th son . Anulet
6th son . Fleur-de-lys
7th son . Rose
8th son . Cross Molines
9th son . Octofoil

These marks of cadency were placed upon the point of honour on the shield (centre top), or in some other conspicuous position. One of these marks might be charged upon another; for instance, the fourth son of the second son of the head of the house would bear a martlet upon a crescent, and so forth. The use of the label, or in fact any mark of cadency, was by no means universal. Such marks were used by the most punctilious, but the complications occurring in a few successive generations defeated the object for which the system was devised.

Cadency charges occasionally permanent. In course of time these marks of cadency, used in conjunction with some main charge, often, but by no means always, became themselves inherent hereditary factors in the shields of descendants of the original younger sons.

Daughters do not carry "differences."

Arms of daughters. When there were daughters in the family of an "armiger," as the possessor of armorial bearings was called, as well as sons, the unmarried daughters were entitled to use the family coat of arms during their lifetime. They were blazoned on what was called a Lozenge or Diamond (Fig. 441): "argent two corbies proper, within a bordure sable charged with fourteen plates," for Corbet. This rule dates from the fifteenth century, but some time previous to this - thirteenth century - lozenges were used for displaying on seals the armorial bearings of men and women.

When an armiger married a woman who possessed brothers, the family arms borne by him and his wife went through the process of "dimidiating," or "halving;" the two coats of arms, which were then joined together. The shield of arms shown in Fig. 442 illustrates this method, and is interesting, as it was borne by Edward I. and Margaret of France, and also by Edward II. and Isabella of France. From the middle of the thirteenth century onward this method was gradually changed to Impalement, that is, the shield was divided "per pale," down the middle, and the husband's family arms were blazoned on the dexter side, and the wife's family arms on the sinister side (Fig. 443): the arms of Sir Richard Whittington: "gules a fesse componee of and azure; an anulet of the second," impaling those of his wife: "quarterly per fesse indented, ermine and azure;" for Fitzwaryn. He took the busy bee as his crest. By the third quarter of the fourteenth century impalement had entirely superseded dimidiation.

Heraldic heiresses. When there were no sons in the family, the married daughters were entitled not only to inherit the arms of their father, but to transmit them to their descendants. An only daughter and child was called a "sole heir"; if more than one, they were "co-heirs: [ But not the crest (which the woman did not possess and therefore could not transmit).]

Heiress: escutcheon of pretence. If the armiger married an heir, or co-heir, then the wife's family arms were blazoned on a small shield, called an Escutcheon of Pretence, and placed in the centre of the husband's own family shield (Plate XVII.). Strictly, the escutcheon of pretence ought not to supersede impalement until a child is born - in fact not until the husband has good "pretensions" of having his wife's arms quartered hereafter with his own by his sons and their descendants.

Arms of an heiress transmitted to her children. The children of these parents inherited the maternal family arms' "quartered" with the paternal. This method is adopted each time a descendant marries an heir (Fig. 444). Should an heir possess any number of quarterings, obtained by her ancestors marriages with heirs, these are all transmitted. The wife of the fourth Viscount Townsend brought in 250 quarterings, including the royal one of Plantagenet.

PLATE XVII. A MODERN FULL ACHIEVEMENT OF ARMS
A. A Tabard                             B A Banner

A simple example of the achievement of quarterings is given below and illustrated in Fig. 444:

Sir Primus Aye, who bears "argent a chevron sable" (A), marries the daughter of Sir James Bee, bearing "azure a fesse argent" (B). After marriage their coat of arms appears as (C). They have a son, Secundus, and when he assumes the paternal arms he adds the label (D). In course of time his father dies and the label is removed. His widowed mother assumes the armorial bearings on a lozenge (E). At a later date Sir Secundus Aye marries the daughter and co-heir of William Dee, who bears "sable a crescent argent" (F) and his shield bears his wife's arms in pretence (G). A son, Tertius, is born to them, and when his mother dies he assumes his paternal coat, quartered with the maternal, on his labelled shield (H). Afterwards he marries the daughter and heir of Sir Basil Epsilon, who bears quarterly "argent three pellets," and, because her mother was an heir, "argent a cross sable" for Effe (J). His father conveniently dies about the same time, and, having removed the label, Sir Tertius Aye takes his wife's escutcheon of pretence and places it on his own shield (K). Before their son Quartus receives knighthood, the father goes the way of all flesh. No label is required when Sir Quartus Aye assumes his family coat of arms of four quarterings for Aye, Dee, Epsilon and Effe (L).

NOTE. - Although these sections are written mainly in the past tense, the rules relating to Heritage and Achievements of Arms remain the same to-day.

Plate XVII. shows a modern "Full Achievement" of arms showing the family coats quartered and the escutcheon of pretence, the crest of a family representing two families and bearing, by virtue of a licence from the Crown, the crest as well as the arms of the family of an ancestress. The helmet and lambrequins are used as decorative mantling.

SECTION VII. - HERALDRY AS APPLIED TO COSTUME, FLAGS, HORSE FURNITURE AND WALL-HANGINGS

Parti-colour or Pied

Reference has been made to the attendance at Edward I's marriage procession (1299) of the Saddlers' Guild, in "livery" of red and white. Over a hundred years earlier, the first example of Parti-colour appeared in England, but it did not become popular until this time. Garments were "parted per pale," that is, divided vertically into halves of contrasting colours.

At first, i.e. in Edward I's reign, this method was adopted by the great as a livery for their retainers; the colours used were the principal tinctures from the family coat of arms. Later, in the time of the volatile Edward II., the king's foolish and dissolute companions were greatly intrigued by this fashion, and in their levity adopted it for themselves, taking from their own unrespected armorial bearings the tinctures for their festive garments, and presently introducing "counterchanging," e.g. the red half of a garment had a white sleeve or leg, and the white half a red one. The younger ladies fair fell victims to the same craze, which added to the colourful picturesqueness of joust and tournament. Later still, in Edward III.'s reign, and for a century afterwards, the vogue originated by gay and irresponsible youth spread to more serious-minded folk, and parti-colour was accepted as orthodox wear for young and old, courtier and citizen.

On the other hand, it is possible that in some - perhaps many - cases the effect in question arose fortuitously, i.e. when, owing to a lack of some of the original material, some other of a contrasting colour was used, e.g. to patch or replace part of a valuable garment, the bizarre effect thus obtained being approved and copied deliberately.

COSTUME OF THE MEN

The Surcote

Armorial bearings, as distinct from badges and mottoes, were worn by gentlemen only on their military surcotes, shields, helmets and horse-trappings.

The armour in use during the First Crusade was of the type worn by the Normans when they invaded England in 1066, and was made mostly of leather with iron bosses; but after the return of the Crusaders, in the early part of the twelfth century, armour, and arms offensive and defensive, underwent a great change, which marks the commencement of the period of chain-mail armour.

Nobles and knights participating in the Second and Third Crusades (1146-7, 1188) covered their bodies and arms with tunics (hauberks) and their legs with chausses, both of chain mail. So equipped, they found that the powerful sun of the Syrian plains, shining upon the polished iron,

[  Their armour shines beneath the sun's clear ray,
   Hauberks and helms throw off a dazzling flame
   And blazoned shields, flowered in bright array,
   Also their spears, with golden ensigns gay.

Song of Roland, Laisses 137, lines 1808-11. ]

caused a heat beyond the wearer's endurance; therefore a covering became necessary, and this not only to protect the iron from the burning rays of the sun, but also to prevent it rusting. The surcote, made of white linen or silk, was introduced, and worn over the armour to overcome this difficulty. It was sometimes called the cyclas.

The cylindrical helmets which were worn at this time concealed the face, and the use of uniform white surcotes made it very difficult to identify the wearer. To obviate this, the idea of placing some distinguishing mark or "charge" upon the already tinctured shield was evolved.

The Italians appear to have been the first to adopt the surcote,in the twelfth century. Later it was used by the French, but it was not worn by the English until the reign of Henry II. Surcotes did not become general until the time of John.

Military surcotes were cut on almost the same lines as the cyclas shown in Fig. 193, but wider. Being made of soft material, they hung in many small folds around the hips, and were girded at the waist by the sword-belt. In length the surcote reached half-way down the leg (Fig. 445); the shorter variation, called the cyclas, generally came to knee-level and was sometimes shorter in front than at the back.

The seal of Alexander II. of Scotland (1214), and the effigies of Robert Curthose at Gloucester, Fig. 445 (executed in the second half of the twelfth century), and William Longespte (1224) at Salisbury, and of knights in the Temple Church, show examples of the surcote in its earlier form. These early surcotes were always white, but during the first part of the thirteenth century coloured surcotes were worn to distinguish certain groups of knights. Louis IX. was attended by forty knights clothed in "surcotes simply of green." The surcote is also shown in the drawing (Fig. 447) of the troubadour-knight, Wolfram von Eschenbach (1210), who bears upon his shield and banner "gules two axes endorsed argent." The two axes used also as a crest should be noticed. The arms borne by another troubadour, Walther von der Vogelweide (Plate XVI. A), are: "gules a birdcage or, and within it a bird vert: crest, a birdcage and bird as in arms."

PLATE XVIII. SIR GEOFFREY LOUTERELL, HIS WIFE AND DAUGHTER-IN-LAW
about 1340

At this time also, charges, identical with those on the shield, were first placed upon the surcote (first examples: de I'Isle, Rampton, Cambs, effigy; Sir Robert de Setvans, Charlham, Kent, 1306) and occupied its whole surface, which became the "field." Since for this purpose it became necessary for them to be more substantially made, surcotes were often mounted on another material as a foundation, and lined with a contrasting colour. In this process they were reduced in width, and cut precisely as shown in Fig. 193 and in Fig. 448. This surcote is "or a fesse between two chevrons sable barrulee gules;" for de l'Isle. " Barrulet" is a diminutive bar or fesse (and "cotise" a diminutive bend).

Early in the reign of Henry III. an order was given for a cyclas to be made for the king "of the best purple samit embroidered with three leopards in front and three behind" - the royal arms of England, which are charged upon a red field. The use of the word "purple" to denote the variety of shades mentioned in Vol. I., p. 106, at so late a date is interesting.

Plate XVIII. is taken from the Louterell Psalter, which (from internal evidence) "bears date prior to the year 1340." It represents Sir Geoffrey Louterell being armed for a tournament by his wife and daughter-in-law, and gives all details of the equipment for such an occasion of a knight and ladies during the second quarter of the fourteenth century.

Sir Geoffrey wears the surcote and ailettes, charged with his armorial bearings, "azure a bend between six martlets argent," over armour of the period. The tilting helmet of, gold being handed to him by his wife has the fan-shaped crest, displaying the Louterell arms between two uprights - a curious, yet not uncommon decoration. Each item in the illustration is described under its separate heading.

After the first quarter of the fourteenth century, the surcote became closer fitting on the shoulders, chest (where it was often padded) and at the waist, but it retained the full though shorter skirts. This was the first form of a variety of the surcote called the jupon, shown in Fig. 449: "or frette sable, on a chief of the second three besants;" for Almeric, Lord St. Amand (1347). The besant is a golden roundle and had its origin in the gold coins in use in Byzantium. With the exception of the helmet, Fig. 449 is taken from the Hastings brass at Elsing, Norfolk.

Gambeson, Haugueton, or Haburgeown and its variation, the Jupon, Gipon, Gypown, [ Chaucer. ] or Gypell, [ Chaucer. ] later called the Pourpoint.

A tight-fitting jacket or vest, worn under armour. It was often padded and quilted (and was then said to be "gamboised"; hence one of its names, "Gambeson") between two layers of thick cotton material called "augueton," from which comes another name - " Haugueton." This jacket or gambeson was worn by warriors of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, usually under their armour, but appears to have been worn sometimes without armour, being sufficiently tough to resist ordinary sword - or lance-thrusts. The jacket or haugueton was used by men-at-arms as defensive armour during the thirteenth century. In the fourteenth, it was not only worn by foot soldiers, but became, in conjunction with the surcote or cyclas, the ordinary garment of knights.

At this time the haugueton followed the shape of the fashionable cotehardie, fitting close over the body, without body armour, and was known as the "Jupon." The jupon was drawn tight to the figure by lacing at the back or sides, the bottom edge often being ornamented with dagges. The surface was covered with rich material, and armorial bearings embroidered upon it. Fig. 446 shows the jupon worn by Edward the Black Prince in his effigy at Canterbury, quartering France Ancient and England. A similar jupon still hangs over the prince's tomb, and is made of blue and crimson velvet, quilted in longitudinal stripes, on a foundation of padding and canvas. The fleur-de-lys and lions are in gold embroidery.

Fig. 450 represents Thomas Beauchamp, fourth Earl of Warwick (1406), and his wife Margaret, daughter of Lord Ferrets of Groby. It is reconstructed from the brass in S. Mary's Church, Warwick. The earl bears upon his jupon, "gules a fesse between six cross-crosslets botonee or," for Beauchamp. This is repeated on the mantle of the countess, and on her gown she bears her father's arms, "gules seven mascles or."

During the early part of the fifteenth century the haugueton or jupon went out of use in England as a military garment. Knights then appeared in full plate armour. At this time a similar tight-fitting jacket, padded on the chest and shoulders, came into fashion among civilians, under the name of " Pourpoint."

The Houpeland

The end of Edward III.'s reign saw the introduction of a fashion of decorating noblemen's long robes - houpelands - and the dresses of the ladies with their family badge or device, powdered all over the garment (see Fig. 348). In like manner, the initial letter of the wearer's name, or that of his or her beloved, might be used, often surmounted by a coronet (see Plate XIV.). The family or personal motto was frequently embroidered as a decoration on the borders of robes and sleeves; and sometimes, worked on a conventional ribbon, it was set diaperwise over the whole dress.

Ailettes

Ailettes came into use about the end of the thirteenth century. Their function was to protect the front of the shoulder and armpit, and they consisted usually of pieces of thick leather or wood, and later of plates of iron, generally quadrangular, but sometimes circular, pentagonal or lozenge-shaped. They were attached to the chain mail by two laces, which passed through holes in the ailettes, and tied together. Before going into combat the knight sometimes secured the upper edges of the ailettes to the helmet by transverse straps, making a gable roof of his head and shoulders and thereby protecting himself from attack. Ailettes were blazoned with armorial bearings which occupied their whole surface, as seen in Plate XVIII.

The Tabard

The tabard was first adopted as an item of military dress at the commencement of the reign of Henry VI. It was worn over their armour by royalties, nobles and knights, and blazoned with the arms of the wearer. The earliest representation of a military tabard is seen in the brass of John Wantele (1424). That of William Fyndern (1444) shows a tabard of the usual shape, similar to that illustrated in Fig. 451. Henry VI. is represented upon one of his seals wearing this garment blazoned with the royal arms.

During this reign, and until the beginning of the sixteenth century, the tabard was frequently worn by nobles on the battlefield, when attending a tournament, or at some military State function. Fig. 451 represents the tabard worn by Richard Beauchamp, fifth Earl of Warwick (1381-1439), and is taken from the Cottonian MS. [ This MS. is the work of (?) John Rous, between the years 1485-1490, all details in it being of this period, irrespective of the dates of the incidents portrayed. As an example, interesting to note that in folio 19b Henry V. is depicted wearing a crown of a pattern which was not used until at least sixty years after his death, and a tabard of a cut unknown before 1440. Henry V. died in 1422! ] in the British Museum. The blazoning is "quarterly, gules a fesse between six crosslets or," for Beauchamp, and chequee or and azure, a chevron ermine," for Newburgh. These armorial bearings were repeated on the back, and on the two cape-like sleeves. Richard III. is represented in the "Warwick Roll" (illuminated by John Rous) wearing a similar tabard, blazoned with the royal arms.

At about the close of the fifteenth century the tabard as an item of military equipment went out of use. It survived as the official costume of heralds, worn over ordinary or secular ceremonial dress. The herald's tabard was blazoned with the arms of the sovereign, indicating that the wearer was in a sense a representative of the Crown. Officers-of-Arms, under the generic name of Heralds, had formed part of the establishment of the sovereign, as well as of some of the great nobles, from very early times. Those in the royal household were incorporated first by Richard III., and consisted of three ranks: (a) Kings-of-Arms (three); (b) Heralds (six); and (c) Poursuivants (four).

There were (and are) three Kings-of-Arms, originally heralds:

The Garter, or Principal, created by Henry V.
The Clarenceux, anciently styled "Surroy," his province lying south of the River Trent. Formerly a herald, created King-of-Arms by Edward IV.
The Norroy, anciently styled "North-Roy," his province lying north of the Trent.
The jurisdiction of the provincial Kings-of-Arms corresponds roughly to the provinces of Canterbury and York.

The six Heralds are:

Windsor, instituted by Edward III.
Chester, Edward III.
York, Edward III.
Lancaster, Edward III.
Richmond, Edward IV.
Somerset Henry VIII.

The four Poursuivants are:

Rouge-Croix, so styled from the Red Cross of S. George.
Bluemantle, so styled by Edward III. in allusion to the French coat of arms, or to the blue mantle of the Order of the Garter.
Rouge-Dragon, instituted by Henry VII. to commemorate his descent from the Welsh Prince Cadwallader, whose badge it was.
Portcullis, so styled by Henry VII. from one of his badges.

Costume of Heralds. The surcote worn by every rank of herald is called a "Tabard," or "Houce [Same as "Heuk"] des Armes." For its shape, see Fig. 451. The tabard of the kings-of-arms, technically known as a "Tunique," is made of velvet and cloth of gold, embroidered and appliqued with the royal arms of the period on the front, back and sleeve-capes.

The kings-of-arms wear crowns, formed of a circlet of gold, bearing the words, Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam misericordiam tuam. The circlet is surmounted by sixteen oak leaves alternately about three and two inches in height. [ This form, still existing, was settled in 1660. ]

The collar of "SS" in gold is worn round the neck, and, from the reign of Elizabeth onward, with pendent royal badges both back and front, and with a portcullis on each shoulder.

The Arms of the office of Garter King-of-Arms are: "argent a cross gules, on a chief azure a crown, surrounded by a garter between a lion passant and a fleur-de-lys or." Those of the office of Clarenceux King-of-Arms are: "argent a cross gules, on a chief of the last a lion passant guardant crowned or"; and those of the office of Norroy King-of-Arms: "argent a cross gules, on a chief per pale gules and azure a lion passant guardant crowned between a fleur-de-lys and a key wards upwards or." On his official seal each king-of-arms impales his personal coat with his official.

The tabard of the heralds, technically known as a "Placque," is trade of satin and cloth of gold. Collars of "SS" in silver, with royal badge attached both back and front, but without the portcullises on the shoulders, are worn. The badges were added in Elizabeth's time.

The tabards of poursuivants were originally worn athwart, i.e. with the sleeves back and front, and the chief parts of the garment over the arms. They were made of silk throughout. When a poursuivant was created a herald his tabard was readjusted - the chief parts of the garment hanging back and front, and the sleeve part on the shoulders. This practice was in rue until the Commonwealth.

All officers-of-arms in the English royal service wore beneath their tabards, at full State and on ceremonial occasions, indoors, and when on horseback, surcotes of scarlet cloth; in the case of Garter King-of-Arms richly embroidered with a decorative pattern of the period, and furred. When the tabard was worn at a funeral, a "mourning cloke" with a hood and liripipe of black was worn with it.

Late in the eighteenth century a uniform in the prevailing fashion, and of dark blue, was devised for the use of all officers-of-arms, to be worn under the tabard. About 1860 the uniform was changed to scarlet, with gold embroidery indicative of the various ranks of the wearers, and designed in keeping with that worn by all other officers of State.

From the time of Edward III., Messengers-of-Arms, "certain servants, or inferior officials, employed by the Officers-of-Arms," were known as "Courrours des Armes," who passed or repassed on foot on official business. They wore cottes parted "per pale" back and front, "azure and gules," with the king's badge on their backs. After seven years' service in this capacity they were set on horseback, given spurs, and called "Horsemen-at-Arms," and the badge, hitherto shown on the back, was moved to the left shoulder. The exact date and circumstances of the extinction of these and many other minor officials are not known, but they did not come into prominence again after the reorganisation of the royal households in the interests of retrenchment by Henry VII. at the end of the fifteenth century.

An important point to be remembered is that no herald ever blew a trumpet, nor did any trumpeter ever wear an armorial tabard or coat of arms. [ It is possible that these misrepresentations, which originated only in the nineteenth century, are the inventions of some theatrical producer or popular weaver of "historical" romance.] When making a proclamation, a herald or officer-of-arms was preceded or accompanied by a trumpeter to call attention to the proclamation about to be made, and here the association of heralds and trumpeters ends.

About the fourteenth century, surcotes, jupons, tabards, ladies' dresses, and sometimes horse-housings, were treated in elaborate stitchery. The whole surface - the field and the charges - was worked in a decorative manner, on the same principle as diaper or semtee.

Some of the earliest tabards in existence [ The earliest tabards - English - extant date from the first part of the sixteenth century, but these were treated in the earlier manner.] show, for example, the "field or" of yellow silk, embroidered with a line or diaper design in gold thread with tiny gold spangles introduced. A similar method was sometimes adopted for tinctures on elaborate heraldic garments. For example, "azure" might have a groundwork of blue linen embroidered in decorative squares, lozenges, etc., with a stitching of blue silk in perhaps a deeper shade. And it was not unknown to have a jewel - a sapphire of the same colour - set in the centre; a ruby might be used similarly on a ground "gules." This treatment was known as "Purfling."

Plate XVII. A is a photograph of the tabard worn by heralds attached to the Court of Isabella Clara Eugenia, "The Great Infanta," daughter of Philip II. of Spain, wife of the Archduke Albert of Austria, and Governess of the Low Countries from 1598. It is of elaborate sixteenth-century workmanship in velvet, silk and gold applique. The quarterings are interesting, and the method of repeating on a smaller scale the full coat on each sleeve-cape should be noticed.

The Mantle or Cloak of Arms

The mantle or cloak of arms was an uncommon garment worn by kings and nobles on State occasions during the latter part of the fourteenth and the whole of the fifteenth century. In shape it was three-quarters of a circle, and armorial bearings were twice displayed upon it, in front and at the back. Fig. 452 shows one of these mantles of arms laid out flat. It is blazoned quarterly "azure a cinqfoil ermine " for Astley, and "gules two bars or" for Harcourt. It was worn in the manner shown in Fig. 318, with the opening on the right side and fastened on the right shoulder.

A PRACTICAL HINT may be given here for the guidance of those wishing to introduce armorial bearings economically into banners, surcotes, or other garments, or wall-hangings, for stage, film and pageant purposes. To its simplicity is added the virtue of authenticity.

Remnants of an armorial surcote dating about 1240 still exist. It is of very fine linen, golden yellow in colour, and on it a lion in blue linen ("or a lion rampant azure" for Rivers) is appliqued, the edges being sewn down securely with a solid chain-stitch in dull orange. Various parts of the animal are stitched and darned with deeper blue threads, to suggest the anatomy.

This method is still the simplest way of working armorial bearings on dresses, etc., and is more satisfactory than other methods where cost is a consideration. The fabric retains its suppleness better than if painted, the colourings are more intense than stencilling, and it is not such laborious work as embroidery, although the last, of course, is best, and, as a matter of historic fact, was employed in elaborate stitchery of coloured silks, gold and silver threads, for the decoration of the richest armorial dresses, etc., in the Middle Ages, and also for banners.

In the decoration of banners, also, the artist of to-day may combine economy with accuracy by the use of paint. It was indeed usual for all but the most important banners to have their armorial bearings blazoned in this manner. It is well to remember that the charge (except the lettering) is reversed on the side displayed when the staff is to the right of the banner (see Fig. 466), and this is aided if the paint from the other side shows through.

COSTUME OF THE WOMEN

The Cyclas

The women of France were the first to adopt the fashion of displaying armorial bearings upon their garments. The earliest illustration extant is to be found in a French MS. dating about 1285, [ The "Aspremont Horae" in the National Gallery of Victory at Melbourne.] and shows a lady, the wife of Sir Joifrois d'Aspremont and daughter of Sir Nicolas de Kievraing, in the dress she probably wore at the Tournai de Chauvency which took place in that year.

A tournament was a very popular function, and always attracted a fine assembly of ladies - wives, relatives and friends of the contesting knights - who were present in great numbers at so important a social event. It was natural that they should wish to see their lords triumphant, or perhaps discomfited; and interest did not necessarily confine itself to the immediate family circle. Many ladies declared their sympathies by displaying the armorial bearings of the combatants, or they might contribute to the general decorative effect by wearing those of their own family. The husband of this lady, Sir Joifrois himself, was taking part in this particular tournament.

The drawing (Fig. 453) shows the Lady Aspremont, and is reconstructed from a miniature in this illuminated MS. She wears the cyclas, charged with the arms of her father, "or a chief bendy of six argent and gules" (see also Shield), over a gown having tight buttoned sleeves to the wrist. Her hair is encased in a crespinette, fashionable at this time, and she wears a barbette. She was accompanied by her daughter and her sister-in-law, both of whom wore a costume similar to that described, but blazoned with the arms of Aspremont, " gulles a cross argent."

Whether these ladies originated the fashion signifies little, but it is certain that at the end of the thirteenth century armorial bearings were frequently used as decoration for festive dresses. The earliest record of this fashion in England is a brass to Margarete de Camoys, about 1310, which shows her wearing a long flowing gown, with sleeves terminating a little below the elbows, showing the tight buttoned sleeves of the under-gown. Her gown is charged with a "semee of escutcheons," being her father's (not her husband's) arms. Her headdress is the couvrechef draped over the ramshorn hairdressing.

Plate XVIII. shows two ladies, the wife and daughter-in-law of Sir Geoffrey Louterell, both of whom are wearing the cyclas. That of Dame Louterell impales Louterell with "or a lion rampant vert," for Sutton, her father. The "display" of the lion should be studied, as it is an excellent example of the manner in which heraldic beasts were adapted to suit the field. The front of the cyclas being narrow on the chest and divided down the middle "per pale," it is necessary that the back of the animal's head should be cut off by the left arm-opening. This is not a usual practice, but as the lion is the only charge it is consequently of large dimensions, and covers half of the garment. The tail extends in graceful curves up the left side of the back. The "bend argent" of the Louterell arms starts on the lady's right shoulder-blade, passes the right arm-opening, and slants across the skirt to the pale line, terminating just below the knee. The three martlets follow in a line more or lass parallel with the bend.

The lady holding the Louterell shield was the daughter of Sir Geoffrey Scrope, and wife of one of Sir Geoffrey Louterell's sons. Her cyclas impales Louterell and Scrope, "azure a bend or, a label [This label has the usual three points: presumably her "slim outline" was insufficient to display the five points which would have been correct in this case (see second shield in left-hand top corner).] argent," although her father's shield shows a label of five points. The line of the Scrope "bend or" is clearly seen in the illustration. Both ladies wear the cotehardie then in fashion. The younger lady carries her hood of black and gold, faced with ermine, over her arm.

The Mantle

The mantle was used late in the thirteenth century as a means of displaying armorial bearings. It represented the shield; and the blazoning was always arranged to be viewed from the back - the pale line, where present, dividing the mantle in the centre of the back. From the front, therefore, the blazoning, so far as it can be seen, is reversed. The earliest known illustration is to be found in another miniature from the Aspremont Horae, already referred to, where the Lady Aspremont wears her father's arms upon her mantle, and her daughter the Aspremont coat of arms on hers, i.e. both wear the paternal arms.

Fig. 454 gives a diagram of a semicircular armorial mantle which was in use during the period from about 1280 until the middle of the sixteenth century. The mantle remained in use among women as the sole garment on which armorial bearings were displayed, for at least fifty years after such ornamentation on the cotehardie and the sideless gown was discontinued. The mantle in this figure is typical of those worn during the whole of this period. It is taken from the brass at Enfield to the memory of Lady Tiptoft, which dates about 1470 - She was the daughter and heiress of Sir Edward Charlton, Lord Powis, and Eleanor, daughter of Thomas Holland, Earl of Kent, and widow of Roger Mortimer, fourth Earl of March. Lady Tiptoft's mantle bears her father's armorial bearings, and their arrangement illustrates one of those exceptional cases sometimes encountered in heraldry. Owing to the exalted rank of her mother, the maternal arms - Holland - are marshalled upon the dexter side: "gules three lions of England or, within a bordure argent," for Holland, and "or a lion rampant gules," for Charlton, on the sinister side (see centre shield, Plate XIX.). The "bordure," it will be observed, only surrounds two sides of the coat, i.e. it was never placed adjacent to the pale line. The design of the charges to fit the quarter-circles calls for attention. Charges normally horizontal, when arranged on a semicircular mantle always took a line parallel to its circumference, as exemplified in the three lions of the Holland family and the hind legs of the Charlton "lion rampant." The elongated bodies and lower limbs lost their distorted effect when the mantle was fastened on the shoulders of the wearer and hung in folds to the feet (see Plate XIX.). This manner of treating the charge became a little more difficult when only one coat of arms was blazoned on the mantle; a number of quarterings needed less distortion of charges to cover the field. This method also applies to the cloak of arms.

It must be borne in mind that the lines dividing such quarterings are always adapted to accord with the shape of the garment. Those normally perpendicular are straight, but radiate from a common centre at the neck of the mantle; those normally horizontal are arcs, all parallel to the circumference.

Fig. 455 gives a diagram of a semicircular mantle divided "per pale," the dexter being quarterly of four, the sinister quarterly of nine.

The Cotehardie

By the middle of the fourteenth century, when the cyclas had ceased to be the height of fashion among women, armorial bearings were frequently blazoned on the cotehardie. Sometimes the arms of the lady's father only, and sometimes those of her husband alone, were used, and often the impaled coat.

The same difficulty occurred here as with the cyclas in adapting the upper part of the coat of arms to the body part of the garment. The lower part of the charge, whatever it might be, widened out to cover as much as possible of the skirt. When a single coat of arms was used, the charge occupied the front and sides of the cotehardie. An impaled coat had the "per pale" line in the centre of the front, the fields joining at the back (see Fig. 456). A mantle might be worn with this treatment of an impaled coat. The blazoning is "gules on a chevron or, three lions sable," for Cobham, impaling "or three torteaux, a label azure," for Courtney.

Fig. 457 shows an alternative treatment of an impaled coat, which was always worn without a mantle. In this instance the impaled coat is blazoned on the front and repeated on the back, the fields joining at the sides.

The Sideless Gown

The heraldic sideless gown, cut as shown in diagram, Fig. 330, was seldom worn without the mantle. From about the third quarter of the fourteenth century until the reign of Henry VII. these two garments constituted official or State dress for ladies of high rank. Such dresses are to be seen, however, on brasses and monumental effigies to the memory of great ladies down to nearly the middle of the sixteenth century. Armorial bearings were blazoned on the front and sides of the skirt (see Plate XIX.), covering an area shaped like the paludamentum (see Vol. I., Diagram 17.)

PLATE XIX. MARGARET PRINCESS OF WALES, 1410          JOICE, LADY TIPTOFT, 1460

Plate XIX. represents Margaret, Princess of Wales, about 1410 - She was the wife of Owain Glendower, Prince of Wales, and daughter of Sir David Hammer of Flintshire. Her husband's impaled shield is on the left: "quarterly or and gules four lions passant guardant, counter-changed," for Glendower, and "argent two lions passant guardant azure, crowned or;" for Hammer. The Glendower arms are blazoned, on the sideless gown of the princess, and her father's upon her mantle.

Plate XIX. is reconstructed from the brass to the memory of Joice, Lady Tiptoft. The centre shield is that borne by Richard Nevill, son of Ralph, Earl of Westmoreland, and of the Lady Joan Beaufort (1424). He married Alice, daughter of Thomas, Earl of Salisbury, and in right of his wife became Earl of Salisbury, Lord Montagu and Lord Monthermer. Accordingly, the earl quartered ("quarterly quartering") his own arms, " gules a saltire argent" and the label of the Beauforts " componee argent and azure," for Nevill, with "argent three fusils conjoined in fesse gules" for Montagu, and "or an eagle displayed vert," for Monthermer. It will be noticed that the wife's greatly superior rank (through which he derived his earldom) is recognised in the placing of her arms in the dexter position - a method sometimes adopted in such cases. The third shield is that borne by the family of Beaufort, descendants of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III. and Katherine, widow of Sir Otes Swynford. The royal arms are differenced with "a bordure componee argent and azure."

Study of the many examples of heraldic dresses to be seen in illuminated MSS., sculpture, and on brasses, reveals no definite rule as to which coat of arms - the father's or that of the husband - should be displayed upon the cyclas, cotehardie, sideless gown, or mantle. One or other or both might be used, apparently at the whim of the wearer.

FLAGS

From the Anglo-Saxon, fleogan = to fly, so called from their manner of flying or fluttering in the wind.

From pre-Christian times there are records of the use of flags - sometimes decorated with emblems. In their earliest form they were always attached to the spear-shaft, close to the head, and later developments are all derived from this beginning.

The modern term "flag" covers a number of forms, e.g.:

Oriflamme
Pennon
Banner
Guidon
Auncient
Standard
Gonfalon
The Oriflamme

From the Latin, aurea flamma - a flame of gold; a name given to a certain flag in use during the eighth century. It was square or horizontally oblong, one end being decorated with the addition of pointed tongues. Usually made of red silk, it had the effect of a golden flame when fluttering in the sunshine.

Perhaps the earliest existing representation of a flag in Europe is in the ninth-century mosaic on the fagade of S. John Lateran, Rome. The figures of both Constantine the Great (in ninth-century costume) and Charlemagne hold flags in their hands. These are shaped like the oriflamme, and are of red silk, powdered with circles and other minute motifs which might represent golden flames. The staff of one flag is surmounted by a Greek cross, that of the other by a fleur-de-lys (Fig. 458).

It is said that William Duke of Normandy "allowed his oriflamme, made of simple red tissue of silk, to float in the air" at Senlac. The name "oriflamme," given to the banner which was carried before the French kings and preserved in days of peace in the Treasury of the Abbey of S. Denis, seems to have been originally the designation of any royal standard.

The oriflamme or sacred banner of the Abbat of S. Denis was of red silk, extended by three tongues or flames, having a silk tassel between each. The office of oriflamme-bearer was an important and honourable one. Before receiving the oriflamme from the hand of the abbat, the bearer partook of the Sacrament and made a vow to guard his trust faithfully.

In 1119 the oriflamme of S. Denis was carried as the French national standard at the Battle of Brenneville. The oriflamme of France, made of red silk, is shown in Fig. 459, copied from a drawing by Matthew Paris which dates about 1240. It has undergone a change in shape, in accordance with the fashion of the time.

Fig. 460 At the Battle of Cassel (1328), under Philippe VI. de Valois (1328-50), "Messire Miles de Noyers was mounted on a great destrier covered with a 'haubergerie,' and carried in his hand a lance to which was attached the oriflamme of vermilion samit in the shape of a gonfannon with three tails, and surrounded by bands of green silk:"

Fig. 460 shows the oriflamme of France and S. Denis as it appeared in the fifteenth century. It has assumed the shape of a pennon with swallow-tail. It is of red silk embroidered with gold flames and the motto, "Montjoie [ "Montjoie," the war-cry of France. "Renouned word of Pride" (Chanson de Roland).] Saint Denis." This oriflamme is said to have been lost at Agincourt, 1415.

The Pennon

From the Latin, penna - a wing, or a feather; a small flag either single-pointed or swallow-tailed. In the eleventh century the pennon was square, one end being decorated with the addition of pointed tongues, Fig. 461; it was used by the Normans as a distinguishing mark of knights. Many of these are represented on the Bayeux Tapestry. This one shows a Greek cross in a border embroidered on the pennon. The pennon remained for about a hundred years the ensign of the knight, and towards the end of the twelfth century it was charged with some motif from the armorial bearings of the owner - a badge (see badges on pennons in Fig. 462 and 463). This was placed in such a position - at right angles to the lance - that it could be deciphered when the lance was "at charge:" The pennon was frequently surrounded by a narrow gold or coloured fringe.

During the reign of Henry III., the pennon acquired the distinctive swallow-tail, Fig. 462; (badge, a Cornish chough proper, for Scrope), or the single-pointed shape shown in Fig. 463 (badge, a sickle, for Hungerford). Another version of the single-pointed pennon was introduced in the thirteenth century. In shape this was a scalene triangle, Fig. 464, obtained by cutting diagonally the vertically oblong banner.

The Pennoncelle

A long narrow pennon or streamer, usually single-pointed. Frequently flown from the masts of ships (Fig. 465).

The Banner

Low Latin, bandum - a standard; French, banniere. A perpendicularly oblong flag. It was the ensign of the king, barons, overlords, and "knights banneret; " carried before the owner as a sign of his feudal rights.

The banner bore the complete coat of arms of the owner, and represented his shield. The charges were so arranged that the dexter side was always next to the staff, no matter which way the banner flew. This rule holds good with armorial flags and banners of all kinds. See Fig. 466, "barry of argent and sable per bend counterchanged: on a chief sable a lion rampant argent"; and Fig. 467, "argent a chief sable" - the banner of the Knights Templars.

Banners were sometimes tongued; for example, see the banner of the Hospitallers (Fig. 468), "gules a cross argent." This latter style of banner resembles its ancestor, the oriflamme (Fig. 459). Banners were generally made up on a stiff or rigid foundation to prevent flapping; this had the advantage of displaying the coat of arms more effectively. They were frequently decorated with a gold or coloured fringe all round the edge, save at the staff.

It was usual to carry the banner fixed to a spear, and sometimes to a staff. Banners were also attached to long trumpets, and were blazoned with the arms of the lord who employed the trumpeters, and thus corresponded generally with the arms on the tabards of the heralds when the two worked in conjunction.

Some time in the seventeenth century the arms on these trumpet banners were replaced by "Full Achievements" (see Plate XVII.), with crest helmet mantling, supporters and motto, set out with decorative accessories and elaborately embroidered. It is interesting to note that banners used on trumpets might have their charges either parallel or at right angles to the trumpet.

Towards the end of the thirteenth century a superior rank of knight was created, it is said by Edward I. At the same time this new rank was adopted in France. When a knight distinguished himself by any deed of valour he was ordered to present his pennon on the field of battle to the king, or to the commander-in-chief, who cut off its ends - the tongues - thereby converting the pennon into a square banner, and returned it to the owner, who was thus created a " Knight Banneret." On this banner he had the privilege of blazoning his armorial bearings. Henceforth the knights of inferior rank were known as "Knights Bachelor," a name derived from "bas Chevalier."

An alternative practice brought the trianular pennon into use at the end of the thirteenth century. The oblong banner was cut diagonally, converting the retained portion into a scalene triangular pennon.

In the first years of the fourteenth century the oblong banner gave place to a square one (Fig. 469, "gules three crescents argent," for Oliphant). The knights bachelors' pennon therefrom took the shape of a right-angled triangle, i.e. half the square.

Although the general rule seems to have been that the pennon was charged with the badge only, and the banner with the armorial bearings, several illustrations of the first half of the fourteenth century are to be found (Plate XVIII. is one of them, and this is of the old-fashioned shape) showing the pennon blazoned with the coat of arms.

The explanation of many variations to be noticed in the use of flags and other heraldic details appears to lie in the fact that the rules and practices governing their use were nearly always transmitted orally from one generation to another. When the traditional practice died out, very few records, if any, remained for the information of the curious of later days.

The Guidon (Guydon)

An enlarged edition of the pennon. Still used by cavalry regiments in the British Army.

The Standard, Auncient (Norman French, Estendard)

The original meaning is an ensign - that which stands, such as the Roman "Signa" (see Vol. I., p. 80). Later it signified a staff with a flag. It was a name given in the Early Middle Ages to the most imposing kind of flag.

Harold, King of England, possessed one "made of gold tissue having the image of an armed man upon it." Another contemporary description of it is that it "was sumptuously embroidered with gold and precious stones, and represented the form of a man fighting." After his victory at Senlac, William I. sent this standard to Pope Alexander II. His Holiness had already presented the Duke of Normandy with a standard consecrated by himself.

The standard raised at Northalletton in 1138 (the "Battle of the Standard") was a staff surmounted by a crucifix above a silver casket (or pyx) containing the Host, fixed in a four-wheeled car. From the staff below the pyx were flown the sacred banners of S. Cuthbert of Durham, S. Peter of York, S. John of Beverley and S. Wilfrid of Ripon.

The standard in use during the reign of Edward III. was an heraldic flag of pennon shape, usually terminating in two rounded ends, and sometimes swallow-tailed. It varied in size according to the rank of the owner. A typical standard of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is illustrated in Fig. 470. Such a standard would be decorated and charged as follows:

Next to the staff comes the red cross of S. George on a silver field, [ All standards had the S. George's Coat, and at later dates the Union device next the Staff, to identify the owner as an Englishman or Briton. In 1606 the Cross of S. Andrew was added to that of S. George; and in 1801 that of S. Patrick was incorporated with the earlier union, to form what is now known as the Union Jack.] and the rest of the surface is usually divided, "per fesse," or "per bend" or "bendy," into the two principal tinctures of the owner's coat of arms, or livery colours, with the badge, and sometimes also the motto, blazoned in the centre. The whole standard is surrounded by a fringe of gold, of colour, or what is called componee - a single row of small alternating squares of two tinctures of the shield. (See also Beaufort shield, Plate XIX)

The standard shown has the red cross of S. George and the livery colours, argent and sable, charged with the badge of an oliphant proper. The fringe is componee of argent and sable.

The standard was usually carried rolled up. Not only was it too sacred to display without reason, but also its great length made it awkward to carry. It was hung from a window or high tower in the owner's castle.

The photograph, Plate XVII.B, shows the banner of the city of Ghent, 1482, which varies from those previously described in an interesting way. It shows the lion familiar in Flemish armorial bearings.

The Gonfannon or Gonfalon (Italian, Gonfalone, the bearer of this flag was called a "gonfalonier").

The gonfannon was a long flag, pointed, or swallow-tailed, or of several tongues, displayed from a transverse bar slung to a pole or spear. It was used for various purposes, chiefly decoration. It could be either charged with a badge or coat of arms, or ornamented with a fancy design. The gonfannon in Fig. 471 has four tongues, and is charged with a badge - a castle. See also Plate XVI. showing one charged with a coat of arms. The gonfannon was much used for ecclesiastical ceremonies and processions.

Sails of Ships

Coloured sails had been in use by the Romans from pre-Christian times. A vermilion sail was used on the ship of the chief military consul, and a purple one on that of the chief civil consul.

During the period of the empire, the emperor used a purple sail, which was often decorated with imperial devices. Black sails were used by the Romans during a period of national mourning.

Purple and red sails were used for important ships for many subsequent centuries.

The Scandinavians used sails made up of alternate widths of two colours, and this style was adopted by their descendants, the Normans, for their ships' sails (see Bayeux Tapestry).

Bohadin the Arab mentions that at the siege of Jaffa, 1192, King Richard's ship "was distinguished by its red sail."

In the reign of Henry III., a warship's sail was frequently blazoned with the arms of the knight in command - the "Ammiral" - a rank of naval officer [ William de Leybourne was the first "Ammiral of the Seas" in 1286.] which came into existence about this time. The whole sail was used as the field, and the charges displayed upon it in the same manner as the armorial bearings on a shield. Sometimes the knight's badge instead of his arms was powdered over the surface of the sail. This was especially the custom during the latter part of the fourteenth and in the fifteenth century.

The standard of the knight was flown from the mast, and pennoncelles from other points. The royal banner was not flown from ships unless the king was on board.

MILITARY HORSE FURNITURE

War horses or chargers were called "destriers." Sir Samuel Meyrick says this name was used because they were led by the right hand of the page, but it appears more likely to have been derived from the Old French, destruire - to destroy, since such horses were trained to take part in battle, and to use their heavily shod forefeet as remarkably formidable weapons.

At the beginning of the thirteenth century, knights' chargers wore (sometimes over armour) silk or cloth coverings, called "housings" (French, housse). Housings consisted of two pieces, both strongly lined, one of which, having apertures for the eyes, went over the head and neck where it was fixed to the saddle. It was divided in front, and fell over each foreleg, reaching almost to the fetlock. The other part covered the back, haunches, tail and hind-legs. At first (1220), the back part was not so long as the front, Fig. 472. Later (about 1260 the front was shortened and made level with the back part. Early in the fourteenth century both parts were further reduced, and reached only to a short distance below chest-level, Plate XVIII. This housing was of any colour, and many of them were without any decoration. At the time Louis IX. was taken prisoner by the Saracens in 1250, it was reported by Joinville "that he was mounted on a little courser, covered with a housing of silk." However, at a much earlier date it was not unknown for the coat of arms of a knight to be blazoned upon this item of horse furniture, for the seal of Seiher de Quincey, first Earl of Winchester, 1216, shows his armorial bearings, "or a fesse gules, a label of seven points azure," displayed upon the housing of his charger. Fig. 472 shows a housing charged with "azure three buckles argent."

At the end of the fourteenth century and beginning of the fifteenth, the sumptuous decoration of harness and horse furniture knew no bounds. Housings were of the richest silk and brocade, and cloth of gold and silver. Bits, stirrups and all metal fittings were made of gold, often set with pearls and jewels of all kinds, and beautiful enamels.

Housings were frequently powdered all over with the badge of the owner - king, noble or knight. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, this fashion became as general as the earlier one of blazoning the housings with coats of arms.

Plate XVIII. shows perhaps one of the first examples of a piece of horse furniture called the "chamfron," which took the place of the portion of the housing covering the horse's head. It is here shown blazoned with armorial bearings, and made of stiff material such as leather. It fitted the front and cheeks of the horse's head, and had openings for the eyes. This one has coverings for the ears. The chamfron was afterwards developed, and became an important item of plate armour for horses: a small one is shown in Plate XVI.

Trappers of Chain Mail

By the second half of the thirteenth century horses were sometimes armoured in coverings made of chain mail, called "trappers." In shape these trappers were shortened versions of the housings, and were worn over a "gambeson" made of quilted linen, cloth or leather with wool or cotton stuffing between the two thicknesses, Fig 473. These chain-mail trappers were not very generally used, partly on account of their great cost, and partly because of their weight. The gambeson alone usually proved sufficiently effective as a protection. Housings, either of plain colour or blazoned, were frequently placed over the trappers, or the gambeson, as a protection from the sun and rain.

In the fifteenth century a horse was said to be "barded" when it was protected with plate armour.

The Saddle

Horsemen of Greek and Roman times were so highly skilled that it was possible to keep a "good seat" without a saddle. A saddle with a "tree" - that is, a rigid foundation or seat - was unknown until the fourth century A.D. It was used by the Anglo-Saxons. but it was not of any definite shape until the Normans introduced their pattern.

The saddle of the Normans consisted of the "seat" and side-flaps, the latter being wider at the bottom edge than at the top where it joined the seat. The pommel or burr (French, argon saddle-bow or front piece) and cantle - the front and back upstanding portions - curved outwards and were about four to six inches in height (see Fig. 474).

During the twelfth century, the saddle for civil use consisted of a framed seat or tree, a thick square pad, often decorated, and an ornamental saddle-cloth (placed under the saddle), first used in the reign of Henry I. The pommel and cantle returned into use in military saddles about the first quarter of the twelfth century in a much enlarged form, both at the front and at the back, the cantle changing into a chair-back support, as seen in Plate XVIII. and Figs. 472 and 473. It was necessary that these should be very strong so that the rider had a firm seat to withstand the shock of the lance-thrust. This was especially the case during the fourteenth century, when combat with the lance attained considerable importance.

The fixing of a saddle by a strap round the chest and crossed girthstraps is shown in Fig. 473. The former was usually placed under the trapper.

About the middle of the thirteenth century, the pommel and cantle were used to display armorial bearings (see Plate XVIII.).

The Crest

From the end of the thirteenth century onwards, the crest surmounting the knight's helmet was repeated on the horse's head. The horse was always supposed to be looking towards the dexter, and the charges on all items of furniture were blazoned accordingly. This treatment should be noticed in Plate XVIII., where the ladies are facing the dexter and the knight and horse are looking towards the right of the picture.

Bits and Bridles

The ordinary bit in use from the Roman Period to the fourteenth century was a bar of iron with large rings at its extremities, to which the reins were attached, Fig. 475.

From the eleventh to the end of the twelfth century a branch was attached to the bit, having an ornamental disc where it joined the mouth bar, and an open square at its extremity to take the rein, Fig. 476. In the thirteenth century the branch took a slightly curved line, Fig. 477. About the end of the thirteenth century an interesting quadrilateral bit came into use, see Plate XVIII., and remained for the greater part of the fourteenth century.

During the latter part of this century and the fifteenth, bits with straight or curved branches, Fig. 478, were both used, with or without the addition of ornamentation of various kinds, Fig. 479. The bridle also became more ornate and sumptuous.

Reins

For some considerable time reins had consisted of a strap of leather, often coloured. This is known as the curb rein, and was used alone until the fourteenth century. During the thirteenth century reins were decorated in various ways - with metal studs, square, round, or lozenge-shaped.

The snaffle, see Figs. 478 at A, and 479 at B, was introduced about the end of the fourteenth century, and used in conjunction with the curb. It was frequently decorated when used for either civil or military harness. At a little later period the snaffle had a band of material, about four to six inches in depth, attached to the rein for a distance of about fifteen to eighteen inches from the bit, see Fig. 479 at B. This was richly ornamented, and when used for war-horses, or at the tournament (see Plate XVI.), was blazoned in quadrangles with the owner's armorial bearings. In the fifteenth century military reins were sometimes protected by metal rein-guards.

The civil snaffle rein had ornaments of an elaborate nature, such as tassels, metal discs, or bells, etc.

Spurs

Spurs were used by the Greeks in the fifth century B.C. and by the Romans in the fourth century B.C. These were small spikes, fixed to an iron half-hoop or shank having apertures at the ends through which a strap passed to buckle them to the foot (see Fig. 480). This is the origin of what is known as the "prick spur." During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the prick was at the end of a short and straight neck (Figs. 481 and 482). In the thirteenth century the neck took a line downwards, and the shank a decided curve upwards (Fig. 483). Towards the end of the century the neck became longer.

A small wheel with spikes set at the end of the neck, called the "rowel spur," was introduced about the middle of the thirteenth century (Fig. 484).

In the fourteenth century, when war-horses were fully barded, the spur was at the end of a very long neck. This was attached to the shank and strapped to the foot, or riveted to the heel of the soleret (Fig. 485), Fig. 486 is a drawing of a spur from the bronze effigy of Edward the Black Prince on his tomb in Canterbury Cathedral. The straps, which would be of leather, are set with quadrangular ornaments of blue enamel surrounded by gold borders. The buckles and chapes are also in gold.

Stirrups

Stirrups did not come into use until the sixth century, and were not generally used until the eleventh century. From early times up to this period horsemen were so skilled that it was beneath their dignity to require such aid. During the Carlovingian Epoch, when expert horsemanship was severely tested in combats of arms, stirrups of hoop or ring shape, Figs. 487 and 488, were used, hung from straps. The triangular stirrup, Fig. 489, was known at this time, and came into general use among the Normans. This shape continued up to the end of the fourteenth century.

A simple stirrup of bow shape, with two bars for resting the foot, is of the fifteenth century, Fig. 490, and an elaborate one of the same period is shown in Fig. 491.

Wall-hangings

The decoration of walls with armorial bearings was introduced into England from the Continent, where it had been in use for some short time, by Isabella of France, when she came in 1308 as the bride of Edward II. The new queen brought with her some wall-hangings designed in lozenges, certain of which were blazoned with the arms of England, France and Navarre. Fig. 492 shows a reconstruction of this heraldic tapestry, and its blazon is: "gules three lions passant or;" for England; "azure semee of fleurs-de-lys or," for France; "gules an escarbuncle or," for Navarre. In alternate lozenges badges were added: the Star issuing from a crescent, of Richard I.; the Rose, of Edward I.; the Castle, of Edward II.

After this date it gradually became the fashion for the nobility to garnish their apartments with this kind of wall decoration, especially that part of the wall space behind the high seat set upon the dais at the end of the great hall. Alternatively, the hangings might be diapered with the owner's badge, and his achievement of arms placed in the centre, immediately above the seat or throne.

Every noble had the right, in his own house, or anywhere not in the presence of the king, to a "Chair of Estate;" raised on a dais, and set under a canopy with his arms blazoned behind it on a hanging called a "dorsal," or "Cloth of Estate," close up against the wall, the chair being set immediately in front (see Plate XXII. and Fig. 571). The obvious reason for this was to guard against attack from behind. Enthronement at a coronation was the only exception to this practice. If the king honoured him with a visit, the nobleman's arms were removed, the royal arms substituted, and the seat occupied by the king.

Designs for armorial wall-hangings, particularly of the fifteenth century, were of different types. Sometimes the breadth of the tapestry was divided into perpendicular panels about four or five feet in width. On these were displayed two alternating coats of arms, each coat occupying the whole area of its panel(see Plate XXI.A). Another very general treatment of armorial tapestry was to divide it into squares or oblongs. In an illuminated' MS. [ Roy. MS. 15, E. VI. ] dating about 1445 the dorsal behind the throne of Henry VI. is designed in oblongs about twelve by ten inches, with the arms of France and England in alternating spaces.

In Plate XXIV. is seen a wall-hanging composed of lozenges of red and white. The white are charged with the red rose of the House of Lancaster, and the red lozenges with the white rose of the House of York. The badges of noble houses were often used in this manner on wall-hangings.

The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave.

CHAPTER VI